Showing posts for January 2005
CSS syntax is made up of three parts:
The way in which these are used is:
selector {property: value;}
You don't have to have each property/value pair on a separate line but it does increase readability - especially in long, complex style sheets.
For example, to set a black background, you would use:
body {background: #000000;}
where #000000 is the hexadecimal code for black.
If the value you want to use contains white space multiple words, put quotes around the value:
p {font-family: 'sans serif';}
You can specify more than one property in a given declaration. The example below shows how to define a center aligned paragraph of italicised text.
p {text-align:center; font-style: italic;}
You can group selectors by separate them with commas.
In the example below, all the header elements have been defined as white:
h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {color: #ffffff;}
However, whenever you do define a text colour, it is advisable to also define a background colour and vice versa. This can ensure that your text remain readable.
h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {color: #ffffff; background: #000000;}
Now your white header text will always be on a black background - even if the rest of your page has a white background.
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With the class selector you can define different styles for the same type of HTML element.
For example, you want two types of paragraphs in your document: one italicised and one bold.
p.italic {font-style: italic;}
p.bold{font-weight: bold;}
Now, when you want to use either of the above styles in a web page, you can do the following
<p class="italic">This paragraph will be in italics.</p>
<p class="bold">This paragraph will be bold.</p>
However, you can only specify one class attribute per HTML element at any one time! The example below is the wrong way of trying to get bold, italicised, text:
<p class="italic" class="bold">This text is bold and italic.</p>
The correct method would be to define a third class selector.
p.bold-italic {font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;}
And then use:
<p class="bold-italic">This text is bold and italic.</p>
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If you omit the tag name in a selector, you open it up to be used by any HTML element.
For example, the following class:
.center {text-align: center;}
can be used with any tag as appropriate.
<p class="center">...</p>
<span class="center">...</span>
<td class="center">...</td>
<div class="center">...</div>
can all be used in the same document.
Use class selectors where you think you will need to re-apply the same style more than once in a given document.
If you think that you will need to use the style with different HTML elements, don't include any tag names in the class selector declaration.
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The id selector is different from the class selector.
While a class selector may be applied to many elements in a given document, an id selector can only be applied to only one element within a given document ie. it must be unique within the document.
The style rule below will match a p element that has the id value 'para1':
p#para1 {text-align: center; color: #ff0000; background: #000000;}
The style rule below will match the first element that has the id value 'green':
#green {color: 00ff00;background: #000000;}
So you could have:
<h1 id="green">...</h1>
<h2>...</h2>
<p id="para1">...</p>
in the same document.
But having:
<h1 id="green">...</h1>
<h2 id="green">...</h2>
<p id="para1">...</p>
would be illegal as you would have attempted to repeat the id selector '#green'.
Use id selectors for styles that you are sure you'll only need once in a given document.
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You can insert comments in CSS to explain your code, which can help you when you edit the source code at a later date.
Comments are ignored by the browser and begin with "/*", and ends with "*/".
/* This is a comment */
p {text-align: center;}
/* This is another comment */
h1 {background: #ffffff; color: #000000;}
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Music helps us to make sense of the world. Through sound we can give an expressive shape to our experience. It is a pleasure and a joy for its own sake. The National Curriculum for music says, "As an integral part of culture, past and present, it helps pupils understand themselves and relate to others, forging important links between the home, school and the wider world."
Recent research emphasises the benefits of learning music:
If she pushes her fingers through her hair, she is looking to get your attention. Clean and neat hair is as important for a woman as acceptable height, wide shoulders and biceps for a man. The woman who grooms her hair with high care expresses that she is full of energy and feels like doing certain family-friendly activities. The way she touches her hair is also very important. It tells you information about her temperament. If she does it slowly you have encountered a cunning expert of the art of love. Quick, nervy movements disclose impatience or embarrassment.
If she touches the edge of the glass with her fingers, Freudian psychologists interpret it as a sexual sign. This theory is supported by the women themselves, who claim that they deliberately pet the glass, in order to call the chosen man’s attention upon themselves. When you enter a bar and see a full-bosomed blonde touching and caressing her martini glass so that it’d scream, do not think that she is expressing her musicality this way. Don’t ask her whether she is playing the latest hit of Iglesias. This question would not be appropriate. Instead of asking stupid questions, notice the way she is playing the "musical instrument". Elegant, caressing movement is a sign of intrinsic calmness, self-control and waiting, so sit by her. Her beating a rhythm on the glass with her nails is a sign of impatience ora broad hint of SOS, which she’s sending to her boyfriend, who is fighting for another Bailey’s at the bar.
Check out her hands and arms.
If she leans on her hand with her chin and her eyes seem to be thinking, it’s not always the sign of her being impressed by your appearance. Generally the woman tries to answer her own question this way: "Does this guy deserve me" You know the answer, but the lady needs time. If you want to help her make the only right decision, be politely determinate and determinately polite. Flash your sense of humor as well.
If she sits back with her arms crossed together, this is the worst possible thing you can encounter when out hunting. This gesture is evidence of the fact that you’ve made the worst impression of all on the woman and she doesn’t trust you at all. Nothing helps here, neither refined jokes, nor nice, muscular body.
The way the woman herself thinks of her hands is also very important. If she stares at them for a very long time, it may imply that something angers her (perhaps you?). if she beats the rhythm on the table or the bar means a similar state of mind. You think she’s a wild cat, but you’re wrong. She’s thinking about a way how she could get rid of you.
Look at the lips.
If a woman wets her lips quite frequently, it’s either out of habit or desire to get you to pay attention to her lips and sooner or later kiss her.
When a woman is biting your lips, do not interrupt her – everything’s alright. But if she’s biting hers, you may assume that she’s nervous. Why? Perhaps you are staring at her too quizzingly.
Eye the eyes. According to famous experts of the topic and authors of cheap romantic stories the fast movement of the eye-lashes is the sign of women who like to conquer men of their own accord. Besides they are emancipated, who like to take over the duty of initiation. They aren’t waiting for your jokes and wide smile. They undertake to initiate. The only problem with such ladies is that not all of them will enjoy herself in the role of the doped out game. But if you don’t mind losing the role of the hunter, swallow the bait.
Check out the legs. Researchers of body language emphasize that when a woman frequently crosses her legs or let them swing, is also a sexually charged movement. The strongest of all these movements is when she opens her legs without meaning it. It’s a classical Freudian opening symbol. (You must remember Sharon Stone opening her legs in such a beautiful way in Basic Instinct.) A contrary sign to this is when she puts her legs together.
Not all women have the same body language.
Apart from the obvious ways of making money online like selling stock items, there is also a financially safer way turn a website that is in the RED to being in the BLACK. This well known way is using affiliate programs.
The simple way to describe an affiliate program is that it is an arrangement with another site to receive a commission for marketing their products and sending traffic to their site. The amount paid could be based on the amount of traffic sent to the merchant's site or the amount of sales the traffic send make.
This shows that there are at least three parties in an affiliate program transaction:
Affiliate networks, or "affiliate brokers," act as mediators between affiliates and merchant Web sites with affiliate programs. They track all activity, arrange all payment, and help affiliates set up the necessary links on their Web site.
There are many ways to link to a merchant site, some are better than others.
Be prepared to give your partner their best thrill ever with your best casual kiss. 'Casual' in your case means plenty of preparation before hand so you don't have to worry and can concentrate on making it look casual. If you prepare for it correctly, nature is on your side and will cause an explosion of head-spinning brain chemicals to instantly surge through your partner. With the appropriate pre-planning, correct environment and body language you are bound to succeed with your 'casual' kiss and make it turn out fantastic!
Kissing is a physical activity that affects both the old brain limbic system and the new brain cerebral cortex. The old brain is where heart rate, breathing, perspiration and many other bodily functions are controlled. Most of these functions are devoted to survival and sex. This old brain center is revved-up by a kiss and starts unconscious preparations for the body to have sex. (Unless this is a goodbye kiss tossed at your grandparent!)
A kiss most likely causes the female new brain cognitive centers to think about the romantic beauty of the moment and significance of the relationship at this point. The male new brain is most likely thinking about how good the female would look and feel naked!
A healthy, clean body is very stimulating and that requires careful and serious on-going maintenance. No junk food, no cigarettes and plenty of good drinking water daily are essential for a good tasting mouth for both you and your partner. Of course dental hygiene (flossing, brushing and dentist visits) is important, as well as skin and hair care to ensure stimulation for the eyes too.
The female brain and body are turned-on by a beautiful environment and relationship. Romance over a period of time is a very important part of the preparation for the perfect kiss. The proper romantic lead-in to that moment of contact fills her hormone tanks to the brim. When the actual kiss does come, all her tanks empty in an instant and pour powerful brain chemicals into her blood stream. These chemicals trigger off huge changes in all areas of her body preparing her for her biological destiny. It is only her new brain cerebral cortex with its power of rational thought that keeps her passion under control.
At the same time, most healthy men are picturing in their mind how she would look and feel naked.
Most often the kiss is done without any negotiation or discussion on the subject ahead of time. If you have to discuss how to do it then it is 'research' and not for fun. Nearly all the communication is done with body language. Also there may be a question as to who should initiate the kiss and that depends on the culture, training and beliefs of the partners involved. In most situations the man is the pursuer and the woman is watching him carefully while deciding to allow or stop his advances into her space and/or body.
The clearest signal to send when ready to kiss is to get in position. That means, be facing closer than normal while looking into your partner's eyes. Start the move with a soft, caring look on your face, then touch hands or hug upper body and watch for a receptive response. This is especially important: Watch your partner carefully for mirroring moves that match yours. If he or she is moving away, FORGET IT for now. But if all seems welcome, move your face slowly forward and look softly into your partner's eyes. As you slowly (and romantically) move in, aim your lips for their lips, with a little head turn to avoid a nose crash.
Close your eyes before your lips meet (this is an art form), relax your body (Soft bodies feel really nice!) and breathe. Your breath will be filled with pheromones and will stimulate your partner even more. Soft, sensual lip texture is important so relax them and let them even slidea little and even nibble on your partner's, but don't get too wet and slobbery.
The first kiss is really a test run to see if it is going to be fun and if more kissing is welcome. With a little practice (a lot of practice is more fun!) you may enjoy spending longer periods exploring your partner's mouth and face, or even other soft body parts. (Ear lobes are a delicacy but watch out for the hardware.)
Touching or caressing your partner's head, hair and back is a nice bonus for you both. The brain chemicals by now have greatly increased the sensitivity in all parts of the body. Just about any touching feels really good but watch for signs of welcome first. Some people even get pleasure from slaps and rough treatment that normally cause pain. However, don't try the rough stuff without a complete understanding of what is acceptable and desired! This you need to talk about.
Kissing for females is not only great fun for the body but also it stimulates the mind with an increased feeling of emotional and physical closeness. This fits nicely with the female's DNA need for creation of a family and protection for her and offspring. For most women, kissing is the most stimulating physical activity short of intercourse. In the mean time the man is still thinking about how she would look and feel naked. To most men, kissing is upper persuasion for a lower invasion.
Although the idea of Meta tags is growing old, they are still being used to help other sites decide what to put in a link to your site, and other information about your site.
Several meta tags where introduced by the popular search engines, Infoseek and AltaVista, to help there search engines index web pages, and now use meta tags as well as other aspects of the page to index pages.
Meta tags go in the head of your web page, in-between the HTML tags, <head> and </head>.
There are a number of different Meta tags that you can use, but the most important ones are the Description and the Keywords Meta tags as well as having a title for the web page.
<title>Meta Tags Optimisation Tutorial</title>
<meta name= "description" content="Tutorial on Meta Tags optimisation.">
<meta name="keywords" content="meta tags, tutorial, training, HTML">
<meta name="rating" content="general">
The rest of the tags are not necessary but I shall run through them anyway.
<meta name="author" content="Bruce Corkhill">
<meta name="copyright" content="2001, Web Wiz Guide">
<meta name="revisit-after" content="31 Days">
<meta name="expires" content="never">
<meta name="distribution" content="global">
| index(default) | Index the page |
| noindex | Don't index the page |
| nofollow | Don't index any pages hyper-linked to this page |
| none | Same as "noindex, nofollow" |
<meta name="robots" content="noindex, nofollow">
<head>
<title>Meta Tags For Search Engines</title>
<meta name="description" content="Tutorial
on Meta Tags optimisation.">
<meta name="keywords" content="meta tags,
tutorial, training, HTML">
<meta name="rating" content="general">
<meta name="copyright" content="2001, Web Wiz
Guide">
<meta name="revisit-after" content="31 Days">
<meta name="expires" content="never">
<meta name="distribution" content="global">
<meta name="robots" content="index">
</head>
I have compiled a list of 12 tips I think should be helpful when you are writing articles on the Internet.
Use lots of white space. People like to read in 'chunks' of information so have lots of space in your background.
Use short paragraphs. Following on from tip 1 keep it short and let your visitor read little pieces of information at a time.
Use the occasional exclamation mark (!) to get your readers attention. But please do not over use this as many people now appear to be doing.
Ask a question so that your visitor will read on to find the answer. This keeps the readers attention focussed.
Put a lot of thought and effort into your heading. If the heading does not get the visitors attention straight away then they will just move on and not even read your article. Try 'The 7 Secrets to Successfully breeding Cane Toads' rather than 'How to breed cane toads'.
Use bullets to quickly outline a number of points that may be important in your article. Readers can scan through these.
Use numbers if this is appropriate for writing an article. For example the way I am writing this article.
Outline the benefits to your reader. They want to know what they can get out of reading the article so portray the benefits of what you are writing about.
Do not waffle. This is never more important than on the Internet. People get bored quickly and there are a million other articles they could be reading instead of yours. Get to the point quickly - in the very 1ST line!
Target your article. Make it on one topic only and stick to the topic. Do not try to write about 2 or 3 things in the same article. Keep your focus on one topic to keep the interest of your reader.
Conclude with a strong message. A message that summarises your article or gets your reader to take further action.
Finally, be humble. People admire people who are humble. Do not talk down to your readers.
Learn as much as you can about writing on the Internet. It really is different to writing in the offline world. Read as many articles as you can and see which ones you find easier to read.
With 40 million websites in existence, and more than 3 billion web pages indexed by Google at the time of this writing (July 2003), it’s no wonder that more and more people are relying on search engines to find their way through the unruly world that the web has become.
Nowadays, it is crucial to get your pages indexed by the most important search engines. To maximize traffic to your site, you must make sure that all your internal pages are indexed, not just your main page (homepage).
Fortunately, you don’t need to submit each of your pages manually. The most efficient way is to create a Site Map (a list of links to all the pages in your site) and link to it directly from your homepage.
Search engines find pages by “crawling” the web. They go through the code of all the pages in their database (also called index), following links to other pages and adding them to the database (in fact, more pages are added this way than by manual submission).
However, search engines have trouble following links from pages buried too deep within the directory structure of a site. A Site Map solves this problem by giving the engines access to the links to all your pages once they follow the Site Map link in your homepage. For more effectiveness, place your Site Map in your root directory (where your index page is).
While some web users will find their way through your site by following navigation links or by using the search box, others will turn to your Site Map. If you design your Site Map carefully, it will not only be useful to the search engines, but to your human visitors as well.
Here are some pointers:
Once you have created and uploaded your Site Map and placed a link to it in your homepage, submit both your homepage and your Site Map page to the search engines. You will then have to wait until the search engines do a web crawl. In the case of Google, the largest search engine, this happens approximately once a month.
To check if a page on your site has been picked-up and indexed by Google’s, go to www.google.com and use the “allinurl” command in the search box:
allinurl:yourdomain.com/yourpage.html
Where “yourdomain.com/yourpage.html” is the URL of the page you want to check.
To get a list of all the pages in your domain that have been indexed by Google, you’ll have to use the “site” command, followed by your domain name plus a word (or group of words) that you know appear in all your pages (for example, a copyright statement or some footer text):
site:yourdomain.com commonword
If after typing this command you get a list of all your pages (or at least a significant number of pages that weren’t in the index before), this will be a strong indication that your Site Map has been successful.
Do you ever come accros a webpage adorned in colors and why it is all these colors, while none of the other writing tips pages are so adorned? It is called psychology. You were cruising along through the pages, then you clicked to a page and were sort of startled. It grabbed your attention. I know you have heard it said many times, you have to grab the readers attention.
No, this isn’t about why you write, but about how you write. Having rather extensive training in psychology, I have tried to analyze the frame of mind you must be in and your surroundings when you write. The following suggestions are based on sound principle, and some of what I use in my workshops and seminars.
So, now that we have our room all cleaned and straightened up, what about your frame of mind as you write? And, this is far more important than your writing area being uncluttered. Please do not object to language here, because it is part of writing.
I would first like to ask you a question. How many times have you seen an actor/actress in a movie shed tears? I mean, when you can actually see the tears run out of their eyes and down their cheeks? How can they actually cry in that scene? Sure, someone can squirt onion juice in their eyes, but do you think Julia Roberts would put up with that? Have you noticed, the truly good actors and actresses draw you in, make you cry, too? Heck, you know it’s just fiction. Why are you crying? Because the actress is crying. Plainly and simply, you are feeling what they are feeling, and that is the secret to their being able to cry in a sad scene. They actually FEEL the sadness they are play-acting, so they cry.
How can you get in the frame of mind to write a sad scene that will move your reader to tears? You do not have the good fortune to be able to sit with your readers and cry like the actress sits on the screen in front of you and cries. YOU MUST DO IT WITH WORDS!
Again, let me ask a question. Can you write a truly sad scene while laughing at someone telling you a joke? Not likely. Can you write a funny scene when someone is telling you about their mother passing away? Of course not. Not only would her sadness distract you, but it would be a rather impolite thing to do. (:
Remember, we are speaking of the psychology of writing. You must be in the proper psychological frame of mind to write certain scenes well and make your reader cry, get angry or laugh. If you do any or all of these things with your writing, you are doing well.
How do you get in the right frame of mind to write an angry scene? Well, for some, you can sit and stare at the shredded picture of that bastard you gave the better part of your life to, only to have him run off with a twenty-year-old! Think about him going out the door for the last time, and the anger you felt. Get mad all over again! Then, sit down and write your angry scene.
To write a sad scene? Wait for a rainy or, at least, a cloudy day. Stare out the window and think of the hurt you felt when he left you. Or think about the young boy who died of leukemia. Think back to when one of your parents died. When you have tears running down your face, start typing.
When I do a writing seminar or workshop, I like to have fun. So I tell the attendees all these things, only I elaborate. Then, I tell them I have to replace my keyboard about once a month. I either ruin it from the salt in my tears or I beat it to death!
Again, how do you write a truly funny scene? Well, some scenes will be funny regardless of your mood. But the best way, before you start writing, don’t think about funny jokes you have heard or read. Rather, think about true funny things that you have observed or which have happened to you.
In conclusion, the main thing to remember is that your mood will be reflected in your writing, despite yourself. It is a psychological fact. Let me give you a small bit of information that will convince you of the psychological pressure used against us every day. Are you aware that corporations such as GM or Ford or Proctor and Gamble pay Industrial Psychologists HUGE, HUGE salaries and bonuses, sometimes running into the millions? What do they do for all that money? No, they do not design commercials. That’s another department. What they do is, cause you to choose their product over others through very subtle means.
Unless you saved your boxes over a year's time, you would never notice the slight change in package colors to fit the season. Hot summers call for softer color. The dead of a cold winter puts the brighter, more intense packaging on the shelf. The brighter colors unconsciously attract you when the weather is miserable.
Let me tell you about another trick they pull on you. I’ll illustrate by example. When you buy a box of a well-known brand of laundry detergent, it comes with a little scoop included. You put a scoop of powder into the washer, and when the box is empty, you buy another box, with a brand new scoop enclosed, and you throw the old box away, scoop and all.
Now, suppose you are the executive in charge of this division, and the big boys tell you your sales were lagging. My gosh, you’ve done everything you know how to move more product. Then, you hit on a great idea, perhaps with the aid of your Industrial Psychologist. Just increase the size of your scoop, so people will use more product in each load of clothes they wash. “Hell, Joe, let’s just make the scoop half again as large! Brilliant!”
“No, no, Percy. People would notice. But, what we can do is gradually increase the size of the scoop.”
That is exactly what this company has done over the last two to three years. They have increased the size of their scoop by over 30%. Guess what? You are using 30% more detergent to wash your clothes every time you dump a scoop in the washer. But, you hadn’t noticed, because the scoop was slowly increased in size and you threw the old scoop away every time you bought a new box, along with its slightly larger scoop.
This really happened. Being the frugal and inquisitive type, I saved the scoops for comparison. I use it as an example of how we are manipulated by the company wanting us to buy their product or use more of their product. You have all seen the ad for the well-known aspirin brand that states it helps prevent heart attacks. They advertise as if their brand is the only one that will do that when, in truth, an aspirin is an aspirin. But, heck, who doesn’t want to prevent a heart attack? Gotta go get some of them!
Although these examples have nothing to do with writing, they do point out the psychology of how we perceive things or how we don’t perceive them. It illustrates that we are, indeed, susceptible to our own psyche. That is why it is so important to be in the proper frame of mind to write various scenes. If we are consciously sad, our unconscious mind will lend toward us putting that sadness in our work.
I hope this article will be of use to you, and keep writing. (BUT, psyche yourself up for the task first. (: )
A surbahar is best described as a bass sitar. This is because it is similar to sitars but larger and tuned between 4 steps and 2 octave lower. Even the technique used for the surbahar is so similar that sitar players have no problems going between the surbahar and sitar.
The surbahar was originally used for the Hindustani classical music from North India. It is over 130 cm (51 inches) long, has a dried pumpkin as a resonator, and a neck made from tun (Cedrela tuna), or teak wood. The combination of the resonator and the long strings allow the surbahar to emit quite low frequencies of less than 20 Hz. There are 4 rhythm strings (cikari), 4 playing strings and between 15 and 17 un-played sympathetic strings. The thickest playing string is up to 1mm in diameter.
One advantage that the surbahar has over the sitar is that it can sustain a note longer and can glissando (meend) an entire octave on one fret. The instrument is quite well suited to long slow alaps. An aplap is the un-metered, improvised section of a typical North Indian classical performance.
The sustain does bring a problem though. When the surbahar is used to play faster North Indian music such as the gat and jhala, the notes become muddy and indistinct. This is why the surbahar is used to play slow music, while the sitar is used to play faster music.
It was generally accepted that the surbahar was first developed in 1825 by Ustad Sahebdad Khan, but recent research debates this. The lesser known Ustad Ghulam Mohammed, a sitarist from Lucknow, might have developed majority of the surbahar.
Although it is a simple matter to walk into the first music
shop you
see and pick out a guitar amplifier ("amp") at random, you will
probably be unsatisfied with the results of this method. If you take a
couple of mintues to figure out what you are shopping for, you will be
able to make a purchase that you will enjoy for years to come.
Determine the size of the amp you will need. Amps are rated by wattage rather than physical size (although high-wattage amps do tend to be physically larger). By wattage, there are essentially three main categories of guitar amplifiers (combos, heads, and rack-mounted amplifiers), with several subcategories:
Combo (combination) amps combine the amplifier electronics with one or more speakers in a one-piece package. They are the alternative to "heads," which contain only the electronics, and are attached to separate speaker packages (known as "cabinets" or "cabs"). Because it is a one-piece unit, the combo design is generally preferred for smaller, lower-wattage amps. The following are the most common varieties of combo amp:
Micro amps: 1-10 watts. These are tiny, ultra-portable amps which are useful for practice on the go (or when others are trying to sleep). They don't pack enough volume to be used in most "jam" situations (where you must be heard above other musicians). As a rule, their sound quality tends to be poor (when compared to larger amps). The Marshall MS-2 is an example of a super-portable (1 watt) micro amp which has received good reviews.
Practice amps: 10-30 watts. Practice amps are also suited for the bedroom/living room environment, although the loudest of them may be used for small gigs (performances), especially if a microphone is used to run them through the venue's PA system. As with micro amps, practice amps tend to compare unfavorably to larger units in terms of sound quality, although as they approach the 30 watt level,a few models offer increasingly competitive sound. The Roland Cube 30 is an example of a practice amp which is generally well-regarded. As a general rule, the best practice amps have at least a 10 inch speaker. This is the smallest speaker size which is generally considered a "real speaker." If you don't have a 10 inch (or larger) speaker, don't try to use the amp outside the bedroom. The embarrassment you save will be your own.
Full-size 1x12 combos: With 50 or more watts of power and one 12 inch speaker, the 1x12 amp offers the smallest package which is considered suitable as a stand-alone amplifier for small gigs. In better models, sound quality begins to approach levels acceptable to professional musicians. Quality is always important, but perhaps even more so in the case of the 1x12 combo - with a good one, you'll prove the doubters wrong, but with one of the many duds, you won't be taken seriously. The 1x12 is not a big amp, and if you want to bring it to a serious audition or gig without enduring a storm of eye-rolling and chuckling, it had better stand out from the crowd.
2x12 combos are similiar to 1x12 combos, but they add a second 12 inch speaker. The 2x12 design is considerably heavier and bulkier than the 1x12, but it is still a favorite choice of working musicians for performances at small to medium-sized venues. The addition of a second speaker allows for certain stereo effects, and two speakers simply move more air than one (allowing more "presence" in your sound). The 2x12 amp is small enough to be used in the living room, light enough to be lugged around by someone without major back problems, and yet formidable enough to be taken seriously at rehearsals, auditions, and even on stage. If you have to buy a single amp for practice, rehearsals, and club gigs, a 2x12 is a good choice. You'll occassionally slip and set the volume knob a bit too high (annihilating your unfortunate neighbors), and you'll be tempted to gripe about lugging 50-80 pounds worth of amp all over the place, but it will all be worthwhile when you avoid being "The Guy Who Showed Up to the Audition or Gig With a Practice Amp." That guy usually becomes an "inside story" for the band to tell other musicians when everybody needs a laugh.
There are other types of combos, but these are the mainstays. Having discussed them, we are ready to move on to heads and stacks.
A head is an amplifier without speakers. A cabinet ("cab") is a stand-alone speaker enclosure, which can be connected to a head. A stack is a head and a set of cabinets connected together, ready for use. Stacks are generally preferred for gigs rather than practice, although there's no rule against having a enormous stack in your living room - if your family allows it. Fair warning: in most cases, they won't. Stacks are physically bulky, very heavy, and devastatingly LOUD. These are the tools of musicians who either play arenas and stadiums on a regular basis - or at least dream of doing so.
Heads are all roughly the same size physically, but they come in a variety of wattages. "Small" heads pack 50-100 watts. Full-power heads are generally 100 watts or more. There are also super heads, boasting a tinnitus-inducing 200-400 watts of power. For performances at small to medium-size venues, a small head is more than enough. The smaller heads are often connected to a single 4x12 cabinet (which contains four 12 inch speakers, as the name suggests). This type of setup is known as a "half stack," and it is a favorite of working musicians. The half stack offers plenty of volume, the presence of four speakers, and the "credibility" associated with stacks.
The full stack is the dream of many a guitarist. This is usually a 100 watt head connected to two 4x12 cabinets, although other wattages are sometimes employed. The cabinets are stacked vertically (one on top of the other), giving the setup its distinctive name. A full stack is as tall as a grown man, making for quite an impressive sight. The sound is equally impressive. If you set one of these up in your living room and play it to its full capabilities, you will be evicted from the neighborhood (unless you are an isolated hermit). A full stack can handle all but the very largest of venues. Guitarists who are truly sadistic (in a sonic sense), such as some heavy metal players, may run one of the 200-400 watt super heads through a full stack. With any full stack (and especially the "hot rod" setups), you will require ear protection to play at higher volumes without sustaining potentially serious ear damage.
Stacks are great for playing big venues (and for impressing your friends), but if you aren't a working or touring musician, they can be "overkill" for most situations. Lugging around full-size 4x12 speaker cabinets is hard work, fit only for "roadies" who are getting paid to do it. Showing up to an audition with a full stack and a hand truck to set it up can be almost as bad as showing up with a practice amp. If you lug in a stack, you'd better have the skills to justify it, or (once again), you'll become another "inside story" for the band to chuckle about after rehearsal - "The Newbie Guy Who Brought a Full Stack to the Audition."
Many musicians use "racks," usually a reinforced metal box with removable panels on the front and back. The front side of the rack, when open, has two verticale rows of threaded screw holes on the sides. Rack sizes have been standardized for years -- they are made to fit ALL rack-moutable units, including recording gear, PA amplifiers, vocal processors, chromatic tuners, DJ gear, etc. in addition to guitar amps. Rack-mounted products have a sturdy metal face plate strong enough to support the entire product; they are a standard width, a standard maximum depth, and are usually much shorter than they are tall or deep. The face plate is wider than the rest of the unit and has screw holes on each corner, spaced to line up with the screw holes on the front of any rack. To attach gear to the rack, lay your rack on its backside, place the unit in the rack so that the unit dangles down into the rack, its entire weight supported by the face plate, line it up with the screw holes, and fasten it at each corner with properly-sized screws. The smallest rack products are the shortest, covering only two screw holes -- these are said to take up "one rack space." A larger product that covers up four screw holes on your rack takes up "two rack spaces," and so on. To figure out how many spaces a rack has, count the screw holes on one side and divide it by two.
A rack-mounted guitar amplifier rig is similar to heads in that they have separate amplifier components that are plugged into external speaker cabinets. But nearly all rack-mounted amplifiers are broken down into two further categories -- the pre-amp and the power amp. Both heads and combos have these separate components as well -- racks merely separate them out into two units. Most major amplifier manufacturers, including Marshall, Carvin, Mesa-Boogie, and Peavey make rack-mountable amp rigs.
The Pre-Amp shapes the signal entering your amplifier into a tone. In its basic form, a pre-amp defines the levels of treble, bass, and middle in your tone. However, functions such as gain, presence, and contour have become standard features of modern guitar amplifiers, and rack-mountable pre-amps usually have many more functions indeed -- they are essentially effects processors. Footpedal multi-effects processors are also pre-amps. Plug your guitar into the pre-amp. Most rack pre-amps only take up one rack space.
The Power Amp is connected to the pre-amp by a speaker cable. It takes the signal the pre-amp shaped and gives it volume. Like heads, power amps are available in different sizes, from a minimum of 50 watts to monster 200-400W power amps. 100W or larger power amps will take up two rack spaces. The power amp plugs into the speaker cab like on a head. However, as many power amps as you want can be connected in a daisy chain or to different pre-amp outputs to boost the power of the signal, as well as possibly blend the tonal influences of two different power amps.
Disadvantages of Rack Rigs. As you can probably tell, racks are frequently very complicated rigs. A novice guitarrist may find them perplexing. They are also heavier and bulkier than heads -- and add onto that the bulk and heft of the rack itself. Since you need to buy multiple products and accessories, the price for a new rack rig can be (but isn't always) higher than that of a head.
Advantages of Rack Rigs. On the other hand, using a rack allows you to mix and match products by different manufacturers and find a tone that is distinctly "yours," not the boutique design concept of some engineer at Marshall or Fender. And if you have a reasonably good mind for engineering or basic spatial sequencing (i.e. lining things up in order), even complicated digital pre-amps can be surprisingly user-friendly, providing a more easy-to-understand interface than a row of inscrutable knobs on the front of a head or combo. If you are already a DJ, vocalist, or recording artist, or want to become any one of these, many valuable products are availble that can be mounted right on the same rack with your amplifier.
Also, big racks frequently have caster wheels, making them very easy to roll around, and having a rack can also simplify pre-gig or -practise setup. Instead of having to plug in all your components from scratch, your components can already be plugged in and ready to go as soon as you wheel your rack onto the stage or into the studio and remove the front and back panels. A rack-mountable power conditioner (essentially a rack-mounted power strip with surge protection) can be invaluable to this end as most rack units are independently powered -- simply plug all your products into the conditioner, then whenever you arrive at a gig or practice, plug in the one master power cable from the conditioner, plug in your speaker cab and guitar, switch everything on, and you're ready to rock. If you have pedals, microphones, etc, you can usually fit them into the rack as well, making it your all-purpose, highly-portable gig box (provided that it's on wheels).
Finally, racks are uncommon, and will attract attention. People will be impressed if you wheel a rack rig into rehearsal or performance, but beware -- they will expect you to be a seasoned guitarrist, or at least be able to effectively USE your rack. Don't bring your rack anywhere unless you know how to get those pre-amps and processors to do exactly what you want them to do. Such professionals asU2's The Edge and Nirvana's Kurt Cobain have favored rack rigs.
MIDI. Many rack-mounted pre-amps are digital and use MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) technology. This allows pre-amp settings to be saved in the pre-amp's digital memory to be recalled again later at the push of a button. These buttons can be on the faceplate of the unit, but MIDI pedalboards can be utilized to access those pre-set channels by stepping on footpedal buttons, to prevent a guitarrist from having to go to his rack and search out the right setting in the dark between each song.
In order to get the most from a guitar amplifier, you need to understand how different types of amps suit different styles of music. For the most part, amps are not "one size fits all." Although there are all sorts of amps, they can be classified in two broad categories - "vintage" and "high gain."
Vintage amps produce (or reproduce) the classic sounds of early amplifiers. For the jazz, blues, or blues-rock guitarist, the vintage sound is still widely considered the best tone available. Vintage amps can be actual antiques, or they can be modern amps that replicate the sound of antique amps. The sound of Fender, Vox, Marshall, and similar amplifiers from the 50's, 60's and early 70's is the foundation of the vintage tone. When you think "vintage," you think Hendrix, Led Zeppelin, Eric Clapton, Deep Purple, etc. These are the sounds that started it all.
High-gain amps produce a sound with greater distortion than that of vintage amps. Although there is some debate about the evolution of high-gain amps, many believe that a large part of their history is owed to Eddie Van Halen, who took apart his vintage-style Marshall head and played around with the electronics, allowing him to get far more gain (the source of the classic rock/metal distortion sound). With his landmark "Eruption" solo in 1977, Van Halen introduced the roaring, face-melting sound of super high gain to the guitar community. At around the same time, the emergence of heavy metal bands added another dimension to the high-gain phenomena. For hard rock and heavy metal music from the early 80's and beyond, vintage amps are overshadowed by their modern high-gain counterparts.
If you want to play jazz, blues, blues-rock (in the style of
Led
Zeppelin) or very early heavy metal (in the style of Black Sabbath), a
vintage amp may be your best choice. If you want to play hard rock,
80's metal, and "shred" guitar (in the style of the countless 80's
"guitar heroes"), you will probably want to go with a high-gain model.
Note that many newer amps can provide both high-gain and vintage
sounds, although some purists feel that the only vintage amps worth
playing are the actual antique amplifiers themselves. "Amp modeling"
technnology (which allows one amp to simulate the sound of many
different amps) is a relatively recent development which has both fans
and critics. If you don't plan to specialize exclusively in
vintage-style music, a modeling amp can be very useful, although if
you're a purist, nothing beats walking in with a real Fender Twin
Reverb, an ancient Marshall "Plexi" head, or something similar.
In the vintage days, all amplifiers used vacuum tubes to accomplish the actual amplification. Nowdays, many amps use transistors instead, sparking a long-standing debate about which is better. The concensus is that for almost all types of music, the sound of tubes is noticeably superior. However, tubes have several drawbacks:
Tubes can be expensive, depending the tubes used. Expect to replace them after 4 or more years of use, depending on their quality and how loud/often they are used.
Tubes are somewhat unreliable. They can and do go out at random times, crippling the amp. This can be aleviated by using good quality tubes.
Tubes (and the associated design factors) add considerable weight to the amplifier. Back problems caused by skinny guitar players lugging around big 2x12 tube combos are an insurance company's nightmare.
Tube amps are, generally speaking, more pricey than solid-state amps. You will almost certainly pay more for this ancient technology than you will pay for modern solid-state (transistor) electronics. There are tube amps, however, like the Fender Blues Jr., that go for roughly $300; the Fender Hot Rod Deluxe (which is an extremely loud, 40 Watt, 1x12 amp), goes for about $550-$600. A Vox AC-30 2x12" reissue, on the other hand, will set you back no less than $1200; and a Marshall head + half stack can be well over $2000.
If you can afford a tube amp, you should strongly consider buying one. In almost all cases, the sound is noticeably better. One possible exception to this is for heavy metal players. Many metal guitarists find that the harsher sound of transistors suits their style of music. Given the reliability, weight, and price advantages of solid-state amps, even the professional-level heavy metal guitarist may not require a tube amp. Pantera's Darrell Abbott used solid-state amps, as do many other notable heavy metal musicians.
Your amp will have two different kinds of tubes -- pre-amp
tubes and power-amp tubes (a few combos and heads mix and match between
tube and solid-state pre-amps and power amps). Many modern guitarrists
have forgotten that the original rock 'n' roll "crunch" or distortion
was created when guitarrists like Pete Townsend turned their amps'
volume up to 7 or 8, causing the power tubes to overdrive. A pre-amp
perameter called "Gain" has been added to most amps to simulate that
overdriven distortion. But unless you're into the tinny thrash-metal
sound, no artificial gain setting can compare to the sweet, distorted
tone of overdriven power tubes turned up to 7. The problem is, most
guitarrists, especially new ones, go whole hog for a 100W amp, which
cannot be turned up to 7 or 8 in a small club without blowing the doors
off. They turn their amps down to four or five, turn the gain up to
ten, and never know what they are missing that they could get froma 50W
amp turned to 7 with the gain down to 5. Angus Young of AC/DC plays
live with both a 100W tube head turned up to 6 for his rhythm parts,
and a 50W tube head cranked up to 10 for comparable volume but extra
overdrive that he switched to for his solos.
When shopping for an amp, price should not be your only consideration. Some lower-priced amps offer admirable sound, while you may find some costly amps unsuitable for your needs. To judge quality, read user reviews on various guitar websites. However, be aware that many equipment vendors publish only good reviews (to ensure product sales). Do your research and make an informed decision.
If you purchase a tube amp, try not to abuse it physically. In general, transistor (solid-state) units are designed to take loads of punishment, but tube amps are much more delicate. If your brand new (very expensive) Soldano tube head falls down a flight of stairs, you are probably in deep trouble - while the same thing happening to a solid-state combo will probably result in nothing more than a momentary panic and some laughs (after the fact). In short, do not kick, hurl, slam, pummel, or viciously bludgeon a tube amp - and try to discourage others from doing so. If you're wondering why such a warning is necessary, you probably haven't spent much time with rock musicians.
If you need one amp that can do "everything," consider purchasing one of the new modeling amps with onboard effects. The best of these amps can reproduce the sound of many other units with passable accuracy, and you have instant access to those cool effects that make even crappy guitarists (like me) sound good - delay, chorus, flanger, reverb, etc. With enough effects, your little old grandmother can sound like a rock star. Okay, that's an exaggeration, but if guys like me can sound good, you can too. Crate and Roland (among other companies) make some good effects combos.
Unless you are playing heavy metal, it is generally better to buy a smaller amp with good tone than it is to buy a big loud amp that sounds cheesy. You will never regret having a nice tone, but you will always regret bad tone. If you play with a band, you will likely find that you never need that much volume anyway unless you are playing an arena, and if you are reading this I don't see any arenas in your near future. Buy a small tube amp with a nice sound. Some music stores will try to sell loud amps with loads of effects to beginners. Don't fall for that. Don't fall for all of the "cool" effects; effects get old after a while. Use your ears and pick an amp whose tone you absolutely love, and don't part with your money until you find that amp.
For most beginners, a 15 watt amp will be more than enough for your bedroom and small gigs.
Buying a large combo or (especially) a stack for the purpose of wailing in your living room at all hours can lead to divorce. So can spending $2000 on an amplifier without telling the wife (because you know she's going to say no). As a general rule, guitar equipment is to be treated as if family members had a restraining order against it. It doesn't matter if people pay good money to have you assault their eardrums with your frenzied solos every weekend, nobody at home is going to want to hear it. Whatever type of amp you buy, headphones are a must for home practice. Similarly, if you plan to install an enormous Marshall stack in your garage for rehearsals, make sure it's a detached garage. The Mrs. doesn't want to have Black Sabbath's "War Pigs" rattling windows and knocking pictures off the walls while she is entertaining her Saturday bridge club.
The Sitar is the most popular of all North Indian instruments. It is classified as a chordophone in the lute family, and is related to the Veena and Zither. Sitars have necks crafted from toon or teakwood. The resonator is carved from a large seasoned gourd. There may be an additional, smaller, gourd resonator attached to the neck. There are a series of arched metal frets, which are tied to the neck with line. These frets may be adjusted to alter the pitch.
There are two sizes of tuning pegs on the Sitar. The larger pegs on the peg box are for the playing strings. The large pegs on the side of the neck are for the chikaries (drone strings). The smaller pegs, on the side of the neck, are for the sympathetic strings. The degree of decoration of these pegs is an indication of the class of instrument. The more decorated the pegs, the higher the quality of instrument.
The number of strings varies, with just fewer than 20 being most common. Three sets of strings run the length of the neck. Two sets run over the top of the movable arched metal frets to the end pegs and one set runs under the frets. The top sets are the main or playing strings and chikaries. The playing strings are fretted to produce melodies. A wire finger plectrum, called a mizrab, is used to pluck these strings. The chidaries are periodically struck to provide a drone or tonic base for the music. The sympathetic strings run under the frets to side mounted pegs. The sympathetic strings are almost never played. As the top strings are plucked the sympathetic strings gently vibrate. They add a soft resonating drone to the rhythms played. With all these strings it may be a surprise to know that only one to four strings are actually played to produce a melody.
The surface of the sitar is highly decorated. There are numerous inlays and a good deal of carving. Sitars can be divided into two types, the single and the double toomba. The Double toomba has a second, smaller, carved gourd at the end of the neck. The single usually has fewer strings and only one gourd.
There are a number of theories regarding the origin and history of the Sitar. Most disregard the historical record. Some suggest the Sitar evolved from the ancient veenas such as the rudra veena. However, there are fundamental differences in the way these two instruments are played. The sitar is in the lute family and the veena is a stick zither. There are also differences in the basic construction and materials used. All these things suggest these two instruments developed independently.
The Sitar is often attributed to Amir Khusru. The difficulty arises when you realize there were two famous individuals with the name Amir Khusru. One Amir Khusru who lived in the 1300’s and one who lived in the 1700’s. This alone can make it difficult to ascertain the development of the Sitar. Since the Persian- Islamic influence in Hindu music began with the Moghul Empire during the 1300’s some believe this earlier Amir Khusru was influential in both the development of the Hindustani Sangeet and the Sitar. (Hindustani Sangeet is the style of music that blends the traditional Hindu musical concepts and Persian performance practice.) During the time of Moghul rule Persian lutes were played at court, and may provide the basis of the Indo-Pakistan Sitar. However, there is no physical evidence for the sitar until the time of the collapse of the Moghul Empire. So it can be assumed that this first Amir Khusru had no involvement in the invention of the sitar.
The Sangeet Sudarshana attributes the sitar to the second Amir Khusru during the 18th century. Those that attribute the sitar to this Khusru, believe he developed the sitar from the Persian Sehtar. This Amir’s grandson, Masit Khan, was one of the most influential musicians in the development of this instrument. The Masitkhani Gat style of music with numerous slow gats in the dhrupad derives its name from Masit Khan.
From these theories and the historic record, we can conclude that the sitar developed in the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent not at the beginning, but at the end of the Mogul era. It was likely influenced by or evolved from the Persian lutes played in the Mogul courts
To begin playing sitar, you must first master the seated position. Sit on the ground and cross your legs. Right handed players: Your left foot should stick out under your right thigh. Place your right ankle in front of your left knee. This position allows you to easily hold the sitar. Rest the larger (resonator) toomba on the heel of your left foot. Your right arm rests on top of this toomba and helps to hold the instrument. The neck should cross your chest at an angle, from your right hip to left shoulder. If you have the correct position, your left heel and right forearm should hold the sitar steady. The tips (not the pads) of the index and middle fingers of the left hand are used to note the strings. Do not press the string into the fret. The string is lightly pressed, just above the fret, and then pulled to the outside of the neck.
A wire plectrum, or mizrab, is worn on the index finger of the right hand to strum the strings. When the plectrum is worn correctly the pointed wire is positioned to run over the fingernail and under the pad of the finger. These picks come in various sizes. The pick should slide up and over the outside of the first joint of your index finger. This will secure the plectrum on the finger while playing. If you are a beginner, consider getting the plastic coated plectrum for added comfort. Try placing the point of the plectrum against a string. Flick your finger back and forth, hitting the string each time. This produces a fast tremolo effect.
The graduated scale used in western music (Do, Re, Mi, Fa…) is not used in Indian music. Rather, Indian music is based on a tonic with arbitrary pitch. The tuning of the Sitar will even vary from Raga to Raga.
Here is one suggestion for tuning. There are a number of alternatives.
Always start with the second string and end with the first string. As you tune, repeatedly strike the string until the desired pitch is reached. Also, remember that the tuning pegs of the sitar are tapered and held in by friction. As you tune apply a small amount of pressure to the pegs to keep them secured.
The player may wish to alter the notes of the strings, higher or lower, by a half step. As you become more accustomed to your instrument, you may wish to alter the pitch by changing the size of the string. Once you find a tonic scale that suits you and your instrument, altering the pitch no longer becomes necessary.
When tuning the sitar, begin with the main strings. Start with the second string and continue to the chikaris (drones). The sympathetic strings are tuned depending on which raga you will be playing and on your own preference. Beginners my wish to tune the sympathetic strings to the western tonic scale.
6 main strings:
Begin with the #2 main string, continue to the chikaris. End with the #1 string.
| String |
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
| Staff |
F
|
C
|
G
|
C
|
C
|
C
|
| Notation |
1 octave below Middle C
|
1 octave below Middle C
|
2 octaves below Middle C
|
2 octaves below Middle C
|
Middle C
|
1 octave above Middle C
|
7 main strings:
Begin with the #2 main string, continue to the chikaris. End with the #1 string
| String |
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
| Staff |
F
|
C
|
C
|
G
|
G
|
C
|
C
|
| Notation |
1 octave below Middle C
|
1 octave below Middle C
|
1 octave below Middle C
|
2 octaves below Middle C
|
1 octave below Middle C
|
Middle C
|
1 octave above Middle C
|
Can listening to Mozart really improve your child's IQ?
The Mozart Effect suggests that your child can increase their
intelligence by listening to Mozart's music. It claims to have the
backing of scientific research and has generated a vast literature. It
sounds like a wonderful idea. However, it's not that simple.
In 1993 at the University of California, physicist Gordon Shaw
and Francis Rauscher, an expert on cognitive development, played the
first ten minutes of the Mozart Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major to a
group of college students. The result, they found, was a temporary
increase in the students' spatial-temporal reasoning, for about ten
minutes. The Mozart Effect was born.
Put simply, spatial-temporal reasoning is the ability to
visualise something in space that unfolds over time. Examples are:
estimating how a piece of paper will look unfolded, or reading a map.
In America, the notion has taken hold as parents have leapt at the
opportunity to increase their child's intelligence with something as
wholesome as classical music.
In Georgia, in 1998, the Governor, Zell Miller allocated
£105,000 for the creation of Build Your Baby's Brain Through
the Power of Music, an album of classical music on CD and tape
distributed to hospitals as a gift to new mothers.
But some experts are sceptical. Dr Alexandra Lamont, Lecturer
in Psychology at Keele University, says: "It's only ever been looked at
in adults, but all the people who jumped on it have tried to say, 'Ooh
we should do it with kids, we should do it with babies, we should do it
with unborn babies.' There's no evidence that just listening to music,
not learning to play an instrument, has any effect at all with children
or with babies."
Even so some British parents are convinced of the benefits.
Shradha Sarogi, mother of two girls, says: "'My father studied in
America and he reads a lot of books on child psychology. He told me to
listen to Mozart because it's very important. Especially when I was
pregnant. I got the music because I read about it that the beats of
Mozart, like it's 60 beats in one minute, coincide with the heartbeat
of the foetus. So it makes the child intelligent.
"They become more sharp. They respond more and they become
brighter. I play them any classical music, not the rap or the pop music
because I think that makes them very violent and disturbed."
In fact Mozart can be played at a variety of speeds, and some recorded
rock music has 60 beats per minute. So, if the claims are true, some
rock music should be equally effective in raising IQ.
The good news is that music lessons in childhood and
particularly before the age of seven can have a lasting effect on
children's development. Studies by Dr Rauscher and her colleagues in
Wisconsin, USA, have shown that piano lessons in particular seem to
help develop childrens' spatial-temporal intelligence.
But, she also says: "Whether music learning has an effect on other areas of intelligence is more up in the air."
The bansuri (bans [bamboo] + swar [musical note] is a transverse alto flute made of a single length of bamboo and has six or seven open finger holes. There are no keys to produce sharps and flats, therefore all accidentals and microtones, as well as meend (glissandi) and other ornaments, so important to Indian classical music, are produced by a unique fingering technique.
The bansuri with its pastoral association and the chosen instrument of Lord Krishna, is one of the oldest musical instruments of India: it is mentioned in the Vedas and is depicted in the Buddhist art of 2,000 years ago. One Sanskrit verse credits the bansuri as the source of swarajnana - the knowledge of music.
Although the bansuri is among the most ancient musical instruments of India, its status as a concert instrument for north Indian classical music is a relatively recent phenomenon. This favorite instrument of shepherds and folk musicians for thousands of years was brought into the fold of Hindustani classical music by the legendary maestro, the late Pt Pannalal Ghosh .
Previously the bamboo flute of North India had been a soprano instrument usually no more than fourteen inches long and was used for short classical pieces, light music or accompaniment. Pannalal Ghosh's innovations in the development of the bansuri included the creation ofa larger instrument of more than thirty inches in length, (thus giving the bansuri its characteristic somber-yet-sweet tone and register, so suitable for Hindustani classical music), and the addition of the seventh finger hole (which extends the range of the instrument, while also allowing for the more accurate rendition of many ragas) and the development of the bass bansuri. Perhaps Pannalal Ghosh's greatest contribution however was his insightful adaptation of the classical vocal style and its presentation on the bansuri. A consummate artist who's virtuosity was equaled by the depth of his understanding, Pandit Pannalal Ghosh singlehandedly elevated the status of the bansuri to that of an instrument capable of expressing the sublime and wondrous nature of the classical vocal style.
Whether you are a first-time investor or a savvy investment guru, know that mistakes happen. The key to avoiding mishaps is to keep on top of investment rules, tax codes and annual reports.
The flute is a musical instrument of the woodwind family. A musician who plays the flute is sometimes called a flutist or flautist.
A flute is usually an open-ended reedless tube with circular holes, which produces higher or lower sounds depending on which holes are opened or closed with the fingers. The tone is most usually produced either by blowing horizontally across a hole located near one end of the instrument or by blowing vertically through a narrow channel against a sharp edge.
Flute sounds are typically open and hollow as a result of relatively weak upper partials. As a result, flute tones are sweet in character and blend well with other instruments. The flute's timbre, pitch and attack are flexible, allowing a very high degree of instantaneous expressive control.
In western classical music the standard concert flute is pitched in C and has a range of about 3 octaves starting from middle C. Also commonly used in orchestras is the piccolo, a small flute usually pitched an octave above the concert flute. Alto and bass flutes, pitched a fourth and an octave below the concert flute, are used occasionally. Parts for the alto flute is more common. Many other sizes of flute and piccolo are used from time to time. A much less common instrument of the current pitching system is the treble G flute. An older pitching system used principally in older wind band music includes Db piccolos, Eb soprano flutes (the primary instrument, equivalent to today's concert C flutes), F alto flutes, and Bb bass flutes.
The modern professional concert flute is generally made of silver, gold, or combinations of the two. Student instruments are usually made of nickel silver, or silver-plated brass. Wooden flutes and headjoints are more widely available than in the past.
Some jazz and rock ensembles include flutes. Since Boehm's fingering is used in saxophones as well as concert flutes, many flute players "double" on saxophone for jazz and small ensembles.
The dimensions and key system of the modern western concert flute and its close relatives are almost completely the work of the great flutist, composer, acoustician and silversmith, Theobald Boehm, who described his invention in his 1871 book, The Flute and Flute Playing. Minor additions to and variations on his key system are common but the acoustical struture of the tube remains almost exactly as he designed it. Boehm's key system, with minor variations, continues to be regarded as the most effective system of any modern woodwind, allowing trained players to perform with facility in all keys and with extraordinary velocity and brilliance.
Quite at the opposite end of the spectrum, in terms of the complexity of the key system developed by Boehm, was the Giorgi flute, an advanced form of the ancient holed flute. Patented in 1897, the Giorgi flute was designed without any mechanical keys, though the patent allows for the addition of keys as options. Giorgi enabled the performer to play equally true in all musical keys, as does the Boehm system. Giorgi flutes are now rarities, found in museums and private collections. The underlying principles of both flute patterns are virtually identical, with tone holes spaced as required to produce a fully chromatic scale. The player, by opening and closing holes, adjusts the effective length of the tube, and thus the rate of oscillation, which defines the audible pitch.
Flutes may be either transverse or end-blown, and their tubes may be either open or closed.
The familiar concert flute, piccolo, fife, and Indian bansuri are examples of transverse flutes, in which air is blown from the mouth across a small hole at the top of the instrument. In a transverse flute the embouchure (position of the lips and tongue) is the main determining factor in tone production (as well as having an effect on pitch).
End blown flutes, include the recorder, organ pipe, ocarina, the tin whistle, and the shakuhachi. In these, the stream of air is directed by a pathway against a blade. The embouchure is less critical, though it is still important in mastery of the finer points of playing. Nose flutes exist in some cultures.
Flutes may also be either open- or closed-ended. The organ pipe, ocarina, pan-pipes, concert whistle, jug, police-whistle and bosun's whistle are closed-ended. Open-ended flutes such as the concert flute and recorder have more harmonics, and thus more flexibility for the player, and brighter, more pleasing timbres.
In Middle Eastern music, a flute-like instrument called the ney is often used. Depictions of early versions of the ney can be found in wall paintings in the pyramids of Egypt, indicating that it is one of the oldest musical instruments in continued use.
A flute produces sound when a stream of air directed across the top of a hole bounces in and out of the hole. Some engineers have called this a fluidic multivibrator, because it forms a mechanical analogy to an electronic circuit called a multivibrator.
The stream beats against the air in a resonator, usually a tube. The player changes the pitch of the flute by changing the effective length of the resonator. This is done either by closing holes, or more rarely, with a slide similar to a trombone's slide.
Because the air-stream is lower mass than most of the resonators used in instruments, it can beat faster, but with less momentum. As result, flutes tend to be softer, but higher-pitched than other sound generators of the same size.
To be louder, a flute must use a larger resonator, anda wider air-stream. A flute can generally be made louder by making its resonator and tone-hole wider. This is why police whistles, a form of flute, are very wide for their pitch, and why organs can be far louder than concert flutes: an organ pipe's tone-hole may be several inches wide, while a concert flute's is a fraction of an inch.
The air-stream must be flat, and precisely aimed at the correct angle and velocity, or it will not vibrate. In end-blown flutes, a precisely machined slot extrudes the air. In organs, the air is supplied by a regulated blower.
In a transverse flute, especially the concert flute and piccolo, the player must form and direct the stream with his lips. This makes the transverse flute's pitch and timbre more instantly expressive than any other instrument. However, it also makes the transverse flute immensely more difficult to play than the recorder.
Generally, the quality called "tone color" or "timbre" varies because the flute produces harmonics in different intensities. A harmonic is a frequency that's an even multiple of the lowest, or "fundamental" tone of the flute. When a flute sounds harsh, or whiny, it is being played to provide more harmonics. Generally the air-stream is thinner (to vibrate in more modes), faster (providing more energy to vibrate), and aimed across the hole more shallowly (permitting a more shallow deflection of the airstream to resonate).
Almost all flutes can be played in fundamental, octave, tierce, quatre and cinque modes simply by blowing harder and making the air-stream move more quickly and at a more shallow angle. Flute players select their instrument's resonant mode with embouchure and breath control, much as brass players do.
The timbre is also affected by the quality of the resonator. Generally, more rigid resonators (such as wood) have a "dead" sound, because they have a higher acoustic impedance, and do not resonate with the harmonics. Concert flutes are expected to produce a "brilliant" sound, with a wide range of harmonics. To help this, they are thin tubes made of hard-drawn silver or gold alloys. These are more mechanically elastic than wood, and therefore vibrate in more modes. Theoretically, flutes constructed in thin tubes of elastic but heavy metals, such as alloys of gold, tungsten, platinum or osmium sound "richer" because they vibrate to a lower, therefore more audible range of harmonics. This effect also explains the good tone of bronze and brass flutes, which are less massive, but more elastic.
The precursors of the modern flute were keyless wooden transverse flutes, similar to modern fifes. Later these were modified to be well-tempered, and include between 1 and 8 keys to aid in producing chromatic notes. The most common pitch for such flutes was and remains D, but other pitches sometimes occur. These simple system flutes continue to be used in folk music (particularly Irish traditional music) and in "historically informed" performances of baroque (and earlier) music.
A maladjusted flute is much more difficult to play, and beginning flute-players should invest in a professional adjustment if their instrument is not new. The most common problem as a flute ages is that its pads rot and leak. Also, rough handling can bend the pads and make them leak. The return springs can also weaken, causing slow or unsynchronized opening of the holes. Also, the pad-closure mechanisms can become misaligned or misadjusted. Occasionally the alignment pins can fall out.
Beginning players frequently find themselves unable to produce a sound. The most common reason is that the hole produced by the player's mouth is not aligned with the tone-hole. The standard beginning technique is to feel for the tone hole with one's tongue, and then roll the flute away to the correct angle.
Beginning flute players also often have improper embouchures: The correct embouchure is a small elliptical or slot-like hole formed by the lips and directed at the edge of the tone-hole opposite the player. The aim should be more outward, with faster air for higher, or more brilliant sounds (more high-frequency overtones), and lower, more into the hole, with slower air for lower-notes. One reliable way to aim is to move one's chin in and out.
Correct breath control requires a player to emit large amounts of air, especially when the flute must play more loudly. A breathy sound is preferable to a pinched sound, because the breathy sounds do not carry, and a breathy tone is often otherwise louder and more pure.
Flutes often have the most rapidly changing parts in orchestral music. To become able to play these parts, one should practice complex scales in different modes and keys.
More advanced flute players can also do a vibrato. A vibrato is when a player blows a little extra air through the flute to create a temporarily sharper sound. Vibrato is often used in flute solos and in slow songs. The most common way to learn vibrato is to sharpen the sound as half notes, then eighth notes, then sixteenth notes.
In outdoor playing, wind can "blow out" players' embouchures, causing the air stream to become misplaced. It is normal practice for the piccolo and flute players of a marching band to face away from the wind in heavy weather. The section-leader of the flutes in the marching band normally makes this decision.
Concert flutes have three parts: the head, the body, and the foot. The head contains a tuning-cork (or plug) for precision tuning, adjusted by the head-end knob. Gross, temporary adjustments of pitch are made by moving the head in and out of the head-joint. The player makes fine or rapid adjustments of pitch and timbre by adjusting the embouchure.
Often, a different head can make the flute play like a different flute. Some flute makers sell both end blown heads and transverse heads that can be interchanged. The same flute body can be used as a whistle/recorder style instrument, or as a transverse flute.
The most common mechanical options of flutes are "offset G" keys, "split E" modification, and a "B foot." All of Boehme's original models had offset G keys, which are mechanically simpler, and permit a more relaxed hand position, especially for younger players. Offset G keys are more common on less-expensive flutes, but available on almost all makes at every level of expense. The in-line G was originally invented because it was easier to manufacture, and was used by the better commercial flutes. The split E modification makes the 3rd octave E easier to play for some players. The B foot extends the range of the flute down one semitone to B below middle C.
Trill keys permit rapid alternation between two notes. Fingerings using the trill keys also permit a skilled player to reach four octaves of range, though the commonly used range is three octaves.
Less-expensive flutes are constructed of nickel alloys, possibly silver-plated. More expensive flutes are made of silver alloys. Flutes have been constructed of gold, platinum, wood, glass and many other materials. A flute belongs to the woodwind family, because flutes were originally constructed of wood.
The tubes are usually drawn, Tone-holes may be either drawn or soldered. The rest of the mechanism is constructed by lost-wax castings and machining, with mounting posts silver-soldered to the tube. On the best flutes, the castings are forged to increase their strength.
The head end is the most difficult part to construct, because it is a long thin parabola or hyperbola (note that some editors believe there are only parabolas, others that it varies by maker and model). The lip-rest and tone-hole have critical dimensions, edges and angles, which vary slightly in different models. Fortunately, once made, these never need adjustment.
The tube connecting the embouchure hole of the lip-plate to the head has a critical length. The shorter the hole, the more quickly a flute can be played. The longer the hole, the more beautiful the tone.
The holes are stopped by pads constructed of fish skin (gold-beater's skin) over felt, or in some very low-cost or ruggedized flutes, silicone rubber. A recent development are "precision" pads fitted by a factory-trained technician. Over time, fish skin pads rot, and must be replaced. At least one author prefers silicone rubber pads, especially for students' flutes, because they do not rot or change dimension.
Pads were originally bedded in wax or lacquer, which prevented leaks and permitted them to migrate to a perfect closure. Modern pads are held by screws, which are far sturdier.
Many flutes have open-holed "french" keys in order to facilitate alternate fingerings, and "extended techniques" such as quarter-tones and multiphonics not possible on a closed hole flute. Many flute-players prefer these. Closed holes permit a more relaxed hand position for some players, which can help their playing.
Flutes should have axles and pad-retaining screws of a compatible electronegative material, such as silver or phosphor bronze, rather than steel, in order to prevent bimetallic corrosion. Unfortunately, this is rare. As a result, most flutes' steel axles, screws and mechanisms need periodic cleaning and relubrication to clear out the corroded steel. It appears as a black or grey-blue powder mixed in the lubricant.
The pad return springs are roughly the shape of a pin. These tiny springs are usually made of phosphor-bronze, stainless steel, or rarely, a gold alloy. Phosphor bronze is by far the most preferred material (often mistaken for "gold" by players) because it is relatively inexpensive, makes a good spring, and has the highest electronegativity of any common material. It therefore does not corrode for many years. Stainless steel springs corrode in less than two years of heavy use. Gold springs last until they break from metal fatigue.
The busier life becomes, the easier it is to forget names, numbers and important dates. These mnemonic tricks can help you out.
In the last few years, robots have been an increasing help to people. They have the ability to go where people can not, and do not dare to go. Some main examples of the use of robots are the recent mars explorers that have been sent to mars for scientific reasons, and use of robots in areas where explosives are in use. There has even been an increase of robotics for around the house, including an automated lawnmower and vacuum cleaner.
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